Durkheim believed that altruism is the basis of morality. He was critical of modern society because of the rise of individualism. Durkheim believed that the social structure of society is build upon social facts that cause habitual action (Durkheim 1971:xiv-xi). In order to understand the core of social action, the function of the social action must be studies (Durkheim 1971:xv). There is a connection between social acts and the needs of society. Society cannot exist without the individual. Individuals cannot exist without society, since civilization and humanity is based upon individuals’ relationships with the world around them (Durkheim 1971:38).
Social facts are collective representations that are both emergent of individuals and coercive of individuals. They must be viewed by their relationship with the social whole. Social facts emerge out of an unconscious process due to socialization (Durkheim 1971:36). Social facts transcend the individual and exist sui generis; they have a meaning of their own that is beyond individual consciousness (Durkheim 1971:16).
A duality exists in society among the sacred and the profane. The sacred is that which is beyond individuals. The profane is that which an individual experiences throughout everyday life. Society sanctifies certain ideals which hold society together because they existed before the individual and will continue to exist after the individual. Ideals become untouchable and are consecrated (Durkheim 1971:176). Common ideals allow social cohesion and social solidarity. Commonalities are what holds society together.
Morality is the central organizing force in society that creates social solidarity. Morality is both objective and subjective, meaning it influences individual and is influenced by the individual (Durkheim 1989:88). Due to the subject/object relationship, morality is a historical progression (Giddens 1971:73). Morality consist of both obligation to the collective whole and desire to uphold the collective whole. Durkheim admired discipline (Durkheim 1973:xxxix). He believed that social order occurred through discipline and duty. “We feel a sui generis pleasure in performing out duty simply because it is our duty” (Durkheim 1989:92). Respect of a moral authority honors society and evokes feelings of duty, submission and sacrifice which reifies society (Durkheim 1973:170).
Altruism is the basis of morality and society. Durkheim concludes, “Morality begins with disinterest, with attachment to something other than ourselves” (1973:151) and “Wherever there are societies, there is altruism, because there is solidarity” (1973:83). Moral action cannot be egoistic because moral action requires self-sacrifice to uphold social solidarity. Sacrifice is necessary for society to be maintained (Durkheim 1973:163). Social order depends on moral action of individuals (Ashley and Orenstein 2005:91). Through moral action and abiding a moral authority, the social solidarity of a society strengthens (Durkheim 1973:1972).
The origins of society were based upon mechanical solidarity. A mechanical society is a homogenous society with strong social cohesion (Durkheim 1973:63). Mechanical solidarity is based on the similarity or likeness of individuals in terms of their conception of reality of the collective whole, like that of the horde. All institutions of society tend to overlap and draw from each other. There is little differentiation among mechanical societies and conformity is required (Durkheim 1973:xxiv). A clan is an extensive horde where stratification is based on kinship (Durkheim 1973:64). Where as the horde creates solidarity through likeness, the clans create solidarity through organization (Durkheim 1973:65). Solidarity and social cohesion of clans rests on personal and social ties (Durkheim 1973:66). The clan shares collective punishment, collective responsibility and mutual inheritance (Durkheim 1973:65).
In order to maintain social cohesion, a society must have a strong collective conscious. Mechanical societies have a strong collective conscious. The collective conscious in not just the collection of individual consciousness; it exists sui generis and has properties of its own (Giddens 1971:67). The collective conscious is the characteristics of a group or society arising from and supporting a unified mental and emotional response to the events of the world. The collective conscious is created by social interaction. It pre-exists and outlives an individual. It is felt to be a powerful force that is external to individuals. The collective conscious is capable of both shaping and constraining social action. Although the collective conscious is external to the individual, it is seen as something normal and not viewed as repressive. The collective conscious is the basis of unity in society; it is the moral code.
Collective effervescence is a feeling of stimulation in a crowd of activity. Collective effervescence reifies the collective conscious (Durkheim 1973:173). It is through collective effervescence that religion was born (Durkheim 1973:181). A churinga is an object that appears to have special powers over time. A churinga develops its powers through sacred rituals. Rituals unite individuals and awake a feeling of an external force that dominates them (Durkheim 1973:182). Rituals are able to distinguish the sacred from the profane (Durkheim 1973:187). Rituals are powerful because they give rise to a collective conscious which overrules the fragmented individual consciousness (Durkheim 1973:xlviii). Churingas are only used during religious rituals, so they become sacred are seen as the force that causes the emergence of feelings of collective effervescence.
Collective representations are replenished through the use of rituals. Collective representations are the shared beliefs, values, norms, and ways of thinking that characterize a group. They allow people to look at particular symbols that represent the collective conscious. Collective representation only originate when they are embodied in material objects that become symbols. Symbols represent a common ideal and invoke shared emotions (Durkheim 1973:160). Upon each churinga was a symbolic totem which represents society (Durkheim 1973:183). Individuals attribute feeling toward the totem, although it is really society that creates the feeling. Totems evoke feeling realized by the individual, but they also transcend the individual (Durkheim 1973:185). According to Durkheim, totemism is the earliest form of religion. It is through rituals and religion that the sacred and profane become distinct from one another (Ashley and Orenstein 2005:84).
Rituals consists of both latent and manifest functions. Manifest functions are the apparent functions viewed by individuals in society. Latent functions are the functions that are not apparent and are hidden. Sacred rituals provide a moral order for society and strengthens the bonds between members of society. Although, individuals only recognize the manifest function of rituals, wich is to strengthen the bond between a deity and the individual. Since latent functions are hidden and are not recognized, they are powerful. Latent functions guide an individuals consciousness without the individual realizing it.
As social relations increase, society becomes more complex (Durkheim 1973:109). The transition to organic solidarity occurs as the bulk of society is no longer organized by relations. The village caused the emergence of organic solidarity and modern society (Durkheim 1973:71). As society becomes more complex, individual identity becomes permeable creating a loss in social cohesion (Durkheim 1973:74). Society can no longer be held together by mechanical solidarity which is based upon similarity. The complication of society also causes individuals to become more dependent on society (Durkheim 1973:112). Society becomes held together by organic solidarity, where social cohesion is brought upon by interdependence.
Organic solidarity consists of social systems created by the division of labor (Durkheim 1973:69). According to Durkheim, the division of labor creates the social structure in modern organic societies (1973:79). The division of labor is the source of social solidarity and foundation of moral order (Durkheim 1973:139). As the division of labor increases, so does cultural distinction (Durkheim 1973:188) and individualism (Durkheim 1973:140). Unfortunately, the absence of likeness is a sign of moral failure (Durkheim 1973:134) and specialization does not mark superiority (Durkheim 1973:117).
The division of labor creates social solidarity through the use of interdependence and society contracts (Durkheim 1973:143). The social contract is the primary force organizing social exchange in organic modern society (Durkheim 1973:87). Rules are not inherent in modern society; they are imposed by the social contract (Durkheim 1973:115). The social contract creates a paradox in modern society: “Duties are imposed upon us that we have not expressly desired. It is however through a voluntary act that this has taken place” (Durkheim 1973:113). Contractual cooperation creates unwanted duties causing social solidarity to become an obligation (Durkheim 1973:99). In modern society, cohesion comes from individual self interest (Durkheim 1973:89). Contracts lead to increased bureaucracy (Durkheim 1973:100). It is through bureaucracy and moral rules and regulation that modern institutions become enforced (Durkheim 1973:191). Individuals willingly follow societal regulations but they do not fully desire to do so.
Where as individuals in mechanical societies were subordinate to a group, organic societies become subordinate to a central authority, wether it be a monarch or a constitution (Durkheim 1973:81). The societal contract is enforced though both repressive and restitutive sanctions (Durkheim 1973:136). Repressive sanctions are forms of societal vengeance against individuals who threaten the social solidarity of society. Repressive sanctions are apparent in both organic and mechanical societies. Restitutive sanctions emerge in organic societies. Restitutive sanctions are a form of regulation that compensates an individual. The societal contract is a form of a restitutive sanction. Restitutive sanctions become necessary in organic, modern society because it insures social cohesion when individuals do not naturally feel obligated to abide by the moral code of society.
Modern society has given rise to utilitarianism. Durkheim was highly critical of utilitarianism. Utilitarianism is an English philosophy made popular by Herbert Spencer. Spencer saw society as an evolutionary hierarchy. He believed that if individuals followed their own self interest, society as a whole would benefit because superior individuals would rise to the top. Utilitarianism became the basis for morality in modern society, thus creating a cult of the individual (Durkheim 1973:xxxvi). Individualism does not promote social integration. Moral action is dependent on social integration (Ashley and Orenstein 2005:91). Since individualism distinguishes people due to their differences, social solidarity becomes impossible (Durkheim 1973:48). Without social solidarity, individuals no longer feel obligated to the norms and rules of society and egoism goes unrestrained (Durkheim 1973:138).
Modern society promotes individuality and specialization which divides society. The cult of the individual sanctifies individuality which forces the sacred and profane to become fluid (Durkheim 1973:197). Durkheim believed that the cult of the individual brings about anomie. If the social part of the individual is not developed, both the society and the individual suffer. Society suffers because weak social solidarity leads to widespread conflict among individuals. Individuals suffer due to anomie and feelings of isolation. Anomie is an emotional response of individuals who lack a strong collective conscious. Individuals suffering from anomie do not feel connected with society and feel like something is missing. Individualism forces anomie because it does not promote social integration. Individualism promotes egoism and egoism cannot satisfy individuals because individuals are also apart of society.
Durkheim believed that altruism was the basis of morality. He was highly critical of modern society because utilitarianism and the cult of the individual promotes egoistic behavior. Durkheim believed that individualism caused a rift in society by disintegrating the difference between the sacred and the profane. He believed that individuals could never be free through the practice of utilitarianism because society is not made up of the sum of its parts; it exists sui genesis. Society is superior to the individual. By practicing individualism, individuals will never be free or happy because they are missing a vital part of their being. Individuals suffer anomie in modern society because they lack a strong collective conscious.
